.png){kind=icon}
Planning Canada, Suggestions for Further Reading
Planning Fundamentals
Alfred, T. 2009. “Restitution is the real pathway to justice for Indigenous peoples.” In G. Younging, J. Dewar, and M. DeGagne, eds, Response, Responsibility, and Renewal: Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Journey, 179–90. Ottawa: Aboriginal Healing Foundation.
http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/trc2.pdf
This extensive report on the Canada’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission process includes personal reflections from survivors of residential schools, a timeline of events, and in-depth analysis of the political, cultural, and historical forces behind the residential school era. Residential schools were in place for Canada’s Aboriginal people from the late 1800s to the 1990s, and had long-lasting effects on generations of people, entire communities and cultures. Through the process of truth-telling, the Aboriginal Healing Foundation aimed to engage Canadians in this healing process and encourage them to walk with Aboriginal peoples on the path of reconciliation.
Bennet, A., and C. Elman. 2007. “Case study methods in the international relations subfield.” Comparative Political Studies 40(2): 170–95.
This article aims to present a synthesis of the different case study methods used in the study of international relations, which the authors believe have followed an increasingly standardized and rigorous set of prescriptions and contributed to the improvement of understanding of world politics. The article reviews examples of case selection criteria (e.g. least likely, least and most similar, and deviant cases), qualitative comparative analysis, fuzzy-set analysis, and the integration of multiple methods in the case study methodology. The conclusions also point out a number of challenges to the use of these methods, including protocols for storing and providing access to their primary source materials to improve the replicability of qualitative research.
Gerring, J. 2004. “What is a case study and what is it good for?” American Political Science Review 98(2): 341–54.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224952190_What_is_a_Case_Study_and_What_is_it_Good_For
John Gerring (Boston University) defines a case study as an intensive study of a single unit with the aim to generalize across a larger set of units. Examining the use of case studies in political science, Gerring suggests that there are a number of strengths and weaknesses in the method, including the fact that there are many similarities between single-unit and cross-unit research designs.
Khan, S., and R. VanWynsberghe. 2008. “Cultivating the under-mined: Cross-case analysis as knowledge mobilization.” Forum: Qualitative Social Research 9(1): article 34. http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/334/729.
The authors argue that existing case studies represent under-mined sources of data, which can be used in cross-case analysis to develop new knowledge. They present a number of approaches that researchers can use in cross-case analysis: Ausubel et al.’s cognitive theory of meaningful learning, Kolodner’s case-based reasoning, Flyvberg’s notion of professional expertise, Donmoyer’s theory of learning from cases. They review variable-oriented and case-oriented approaches to cross-case analysis and present some issues to consider in research design. They introduce a new online database of case studies to mobilize case knowledge (Foresee/4C), allowing the development of an online research community to facilitate dialogue.
Community Development and Social Planning
Brault, S. 2005. “The arts and culture as new engines of economic and social development.” Policy Options 26(3).
This article examines the importance of arts and culture in a number of different ways, but particularly the way that politicians view them as contributing to the economic development of a community. It traces the development of this idea from the 1950s, when public spending supported artistic creation and the establishment of major cultural institutions in city centres, to the 1970s, when the collapse of the natural resource sector led to more job creation in arts and culture, to the 2000s when researchers like Richard Florida made a connection between cultural workers and the economic prosperity of city centres.
Kovacs, J. 2011. “Cultural planning in Ontario, Canada: Arts policy or more?” International Journal of Cultural Policy 17(3): 321–40.
The author reviews ten cultural plans from mid-sized cities in Ontario, and interviews planners working in this area, to determine whether cultural planning differs from traditional arts policies. Cultural plans typically involve mapping and leveraging a range of cultural resources, and Ontario has been a leader in municipal cultural planning since 2001. The author found that the ten plans used different definitions for culture, but they were often broad, e.g. including theater, literature, cultural heritage, and music. Overall, the interviews and review of the documents showed that they encompassed far more than traditional arts policies in terms of their strategic recommendations.
United Cities and Local Governments. 2004. “Agenda 21 for culture: An undertaking by cities and local governments for cultural development.” http://www.agenda21cultura.net.
This is the website for the United Cities and Local Governments Agenda 21 policy, which outlines the role for culture in sustainable development. Cities that adopt Agenda 21 for culture show a commitment to ensure that culture takes a role in urban policies, and also shows a sign of solidarities with local governments around the world: over 300 cities have done so. Adopting Agenda 21 can include the development of a cultural strategy, a culture assessment, culture council, and charter of cultural rights and responsibilities. The website and all available reference documents are available in every EU language.
Urban Form and Public Health
Frumkin, H., Frank, L. and Jackson, R.J. (2004). Urban Sprawl and Public Health: Designing, Planning, and Building for Healthy Communities. Washington: Island Press.
An indispensible resource for anyone interested in exploring the connection between public health and built form, this book brings together theory and research from public health, urban design, and urban planning. The authors maintain that the low-density, car-dependent form of development common in the post-war era has contributed to a variety of health issues such as isolation, lack of physical activity, and lack of access to fresh food. They propose a number of solutions to these problems that integrate the current approaches in transportation, land use, and urban design.
Glover, T.D. 2003. “The story of the Queen Anne Memorial Garden: Resisting a dominant cultural narrative.” Journal of Leisure Research 35(2): 190–212.
The article explores the development of a community garden as a way for the residents to respond to urban decline in their neighbourhood and reshape their collective identity. Using narrative inquiry, Glover constructs the story of the garden’s development by using interviews with fourteen of the residents who were involved in this grassroots effort. The result is a journalistic “success story” with the community residents taking back their space from unwanted outsiders, naming it after long-term resident “Queen Anne,” a key community organizer.
Natural Resource Management
Foster, J., A. Lowe, and S. Winkelman. 2011. “The value of green infrastructure for urban climate adaptation.” Washington: Center for Clean Air Policy. http://ccap.org/assets/The-Value-of-Green-Infrastructure-for-Urban-Climate-Adaptation_CCAP-Feb-2011.pdf
This comprehensive report focuses on the contribution of green elements such as eco-roofs, green alleys and streets, and urban forests can be used to tame the urban heat island effect, decrease water runoff, allow rain water collection, and add economic benefits to urban areas. They can increase the quality of life by increasing access to green space, contribute to public health, and help cities become more resilient. Packed with examples of programs incorporating urban tree planting, green infrastructure plans, and rainwater collection from cities across the United States, the report documents benefits such as the amount of energy consumption reduced, the decrease in carbon dioxide levels, and decrease in water runoff in each city or program.
Groves, D., E. Bloom, and B. Joyce. 2011. “A decision framework for the 2013 California Water Plan.” http://www.water.ca.gov/waterplan/docs/meeting_materials/swan/2011-0513/CWP_2013-RAND_DECISION_FRAMEWORK-2011.05.12.pdf
This summary shows how demographic, land use, and climate change scenarios were used to illustrate key uncertainties in water supply and demand in California. Using the scenarios helped policymakers determine which steps to take in developing a robust set of strategies for water management that was flexible enough to meet future uncertainties such as climate change. Robust Decision Making (RDM) is used in situations where there is a lot of uncertainty as well as a range of opinions among policy makers.
Keeney, R., and T.L. McDaniels. 2001. “A framework to guide thinking and analysis regarding climate change policies.” Risk Analysis 21(6): 989–1000.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11824688
Careful thinking about what we want climate change policies to achieve is a crucial first step for analysts to help governments make wise policy choices to address these concerns. This article presents an framework to help guide comparative analysis of climate change policies. The framework recognizes the inability to forecast long-term impacts as a constraint on the use of standard policy analysis, and stresses learning over time as a fundamental concern. The framework focuses on the objectives relevant for climate change policy in North America over the near term (e.g., the next 20 years). For planning and evaluating current climate policy alternatives, a combination of fundamental objectives for the near term and proxy objectives for characterizing the state of the climate problem and the ability to address it at the end of that term is suggested. The framework is intended to provide a basis for policy analysis that explicitly considers the benefits of learning over time to improve climate change policies.
Kellenberg, D.K., and M. Mobarak. 2008. “Does rising income increase or decrease damage risk from natural disasters?” Journal of Urban Economics 63: 788–802.
http://faculty.som.yale.edu/mushfiqmobarak/papers/rising%20income.pdf
The researchers explore the question of which households are most affected by natural disasters: high-income or low-income. Comparing data from 133 countries over a 28-year period, they found that risks associated with flooding, landslides, and windstorms tend to increase with income before they decrease. This is partly due to behaviour and choices, e.g. building embankments or locating close to coastal regions.
Lempert, R.J., and M.E. Schlesinger. 2000. “Robust strategies for abating climate change.” Climate Change 45: 387–401.
http://www.evolvinglogic.com/news/pdfs/Robust_Strategies.pdf
The authors suggest that rather than trying to find the optimum policy solution(s) to climate change based on predicting future trends, we should be able to develop a range of scenarios to help us develop a set of solutions that is flexible and robust. This approach is more appropriate in an era of uncertainty, which makes prediction difficult. Scenarios enabled by computer models allow us to combine different elements of each solution to find the ones that are most flexible, have the most impact, and allow us to change mid-course if they are not working as expected.
Loftus, A. 2011. “Adapting urban water systems to climate change: A handbook for decision-makers at the local level.” Freiburg, Germany: ICLEI European Secretariat VMBH. http://ccsl.iccip.net/SWITCH_Adaption-Handbook_final_small.pdf
A comprehensive guide for cities, this handbook offers tips for cities seeking to make their water systems more flexible to accommodate future climate change scenarios. Building on the knowledge and experience of cities around the world, the report reviews some of the expected challenges cities will face in the future around water supplies and wastewater systems. Packed with examples from international cities, the report profiles the Integrated Water Management approach, adaptive capacity assessment, sensitivity assessment, stakeholder collaboration, and communicating adaptation strategies to the public.
McBean, G. 2009. “Climate change adaptation and extreme weather: Summary recommendations.” Vancouver: Adaptation to Climate Change Team, Simon Fraser University. http://act-adapt.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/PDF-WeatherSession_SummaryReport.pdf
A produce of Simon Fraser University’s Adaptation to Climate Change Team, this guide summarizes recommendations for climate change adaptation policies, emergency management, and infrastructure that will be affected by climate uncertainty and the stress of extreme weather events.
Housing
Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (2016). Affordable Housing Programs across Canada. https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/inpr/afhoce/fuafho/iah/afhopracca/index.cfm
This section of CMHC’s website provides a reference list of affordable housing programs across the country, including programs to increase the supply of affordable housing, programs to repair and renovate existing housing, programs to foster safe independent living, and programs to improve housing affordability.
Metropolis Canada. (2012). http://canada.metropolis.net/index_e.html
From 1997–2012, researchers across Canada led studies on topics of immigrants’ integration into the housing market, ethnic neighbourhoods, immigrants’ health and well-being, and many other issues. The researchers spanned areas such as urban planning, sociology, geography, public health, and community development. Links to a wealth of publications on immigrants’ housing choices and patterns, diversity in Canadian communities, and the patterns of various ethnocultural groups can be found here.
Participatory Processes
Alberta Ministry of Municipal Affairs. “Resources on digital engagement: Public Input Toolkit, Chapter 3, Using digital engagement for public input.” Edmonton: Alberta Ministry of Municipal Affairs. http://www.municipalaffairs.alberta.ca/documents/mdrs/ama_public_input_toolkit_Sept2014.pdf
Chapter 3 of this guide explains the different ways in which the public sector can engage the public, which can be used in addition to traditional methods such as public meetings. Developing a digital engagement strategy can help engage hard-to-reach residents, share information with residents to deliver services more cost-effectively, and increase the audience for public engagement. The chapter presents ways in which even small municipalities with limited resources can use Web 2.0 tools to share municipal news, involve young residents in social media, and overcome barriers to using new tools and techniques. Real-world examples from Alberta highlight the possibilities.
Brabham, D.C. 2013. “Using crowdsourcing in government.” Los Angeles: University of Southern California, IBM Centre for Business of Government. http://businessofgovernment.org/article/using-crowdsourcing-government
This article discusses the use of crowdsourcing to solve public problems, using it as a public participation tool and a method for building common resources. Crowdsourcing involves a top-down, hierarchical management process that aligns well with municipal governance, and a bottom-up, open process that meets the needs of residents. It can be used through wikis, blogs, websites, and social media apps. Many public sector agencies now use crowdsourcing to help prioritize which projects need to be implemented.
Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM). 2011. Municipal Youth Engagement Handbook. Ottawa: FCM.
https://www.fcm.ca/Documents/tools/FCM/Municipal_Youth_Engagement_Handbook_EN.pdf
The Federation of Canadian Municipalities produced this manual to guide municipalities in public participation efforts with young people aged 14–25. The handbook discusses how municipal planning staff can educate and inform youth on municipal issues such as the structure and function of government departments, develop engagement strategies and other participation opportunities for youth in municipal affairs, and recruit and retain young people in the public sector. Examples from Canadian cities, ample web links and profiles of youth organizations are included so that municipalities can adapt strategies that have worked in other places and develop partnerships in their engagement efforts.
HB Lanarc Golder. 2012. “Digital sustainability conversations: How local governments can engage residents online.” http://www.sustainablecitiesinstitute.org/topics/equity-and-engagement/community-visioning-and-participation/digital-sustainability-conversations-how-local-governments-can-engage-residents-online
The Cities of Albany, NY and Richmond, VA developed this guide to digital public engagement focusing on sustainability. As local governments face impacts from climate change and public health concerns, it is becoming increasingly important to engage with the public on important sustainability topics. The guide provides a number of case studies, including some from small municipalities, and presents a 16-step process including: engaging a key audience, developing roles and responsibilities for staff, combining digital and face-to-face engagement, and evaluating and measuring impact of engagement strategies.
Transportation and Infrastructure
Builing, R.N., R. Mitra, and G. Faulkner. 2009. “Active school transportation in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada: An exploration of trends in space and time (1986–2006).” Preventive Medicine 48(6): 507–12.
California Department of Transportation. 2002. Statewide Transit-Oriented Development Study: Factors for Success in California. San Diego: California Department of Transportation.
http://www.fltod.com/research/general_tod/statewide_transit_oriented_development_study.pdf
El-Geneidy, A., L. Kastelberger, and H.T. Abdelhamid. 2011. “Exploring the growth of Montréal’s indoor city.” Journal of Transport and Land Use 4(2): 33–46.
http://tram.mcgill.ca/Research/Publications/Montreal_indoor_city_final_in_JTLU.pdf
Knowles, R.D. 2012. “Transit oriented development in Copenhagen, Denmark: From the finger plan to Ørestad.” Journal of Transport Geography 22: 251–61.
Naess, P., A. Strand, T. Naess, and M. Nicolaisen. 2011. “On their road to sustainability? The challenge of sustainable mobility in urban planning and development in two Scandinavian capital regions.” Town Planning Review 82(3): 285–315.
Case studies are widely used in urban planning, particularly atypical cases which can be used to test theories. This article uses case comparison to examine urban development in Copenhagen and Oslo, which the authors argue can be considered “critical cases” of urban sustainability: any main shortcomings and barriers to sustainable urban development and sustainable mobility in these cities are also likely to be present among European cities with lower sustainability ambitions and achievements. The authors found that both cities have consumed less land for urban development than the economic growth rate since 1990, and that land use policies have been combined with public transit improvements to limit the growth of traffic. However, these public transit improvements have also been accompanied by increases in road capacity, due to lack of coordination between the various land use and transportation planning organizations.
Perl, A., and J. Pucher. 1995. “Transit in trouble? The policy challenge posed by Canada’s changing urban mobility.” Canadian Public Policy 21: 261–83.
Transportation researchers Anthony Perl (Simon Fraser University) and John Pucher (Rutgers University) examine the reasons why public transit ridership was in decline in the mid-1990s. Reviewing Canada’s urban policies during the postwar era, they found that Canada’s initial high levels of federal spending on transit infrastructure during the 1960s and 1970s were not maintained into the recession of the late 1980s. Instead, an era of ambivalence about the roles of the state and the market in urban policy prevailed, with suburbs and roadways expanding further while inner cities continued to densify. Lack of coordination between municipalities, regional and provincial governments also contributed to the lack of consistent policy supporting the type of dense developments that would support public transit use.
Pucher, J., and R. Buehler. 2005. “Why Canadians cycle more than Americans: A comparative analysis of bicycling trends and policies.” Transport Policy 13(3): 265–79.
http://vtpi.org/pucher_canbike.pdf
Transportation researcher John Pucher (Rutgers University) has studied comparative transportation mode share extensively, documenting differences between countries. In this article, Pucher and co-author Ralph Buehler examine the reason why Canada has a higher mode share for cycling than the US despite their similarities in culture, lifestyle, democratic traditions, standard of living, historical development, and resource availability. Using Census data and data from other federal government organizations, they used multiple regression to find that denser, mixed-use development in Canadian cities leads to lower average trip distances, Canadian cities have done more to facilitate cycling through municipal infrastructure and parking, and they have a better safety record for cyclists than American cities.
Thomas, R., and L. Bertolini. (in press). “Defining critical success factors in TOD implementation using rough set analysis.” Journal of Transport and Land Use Planning.
https://www.jtlu.org/index.php/jtlu/article/viewFile/513/622
This paper examines critical success factors in transit-oriented development (TOD) through the use of rough set analysis. The research applied a rough set analysis to a set of 16 critical success factors identified in the first stage of a meta-analysis of 11 international city-regions. The RSA found a number of rules that indicate the combinations of factors that were important in TOD implementation, which help in understanding the different paths to success taken by the different city-regions.
Walter, A.I., and R.W. Scholz. 2007. “Critical success conditions of collaborative methods: A comparative evaluation of transport planning projects.” Transportation 34: 195–212.
https://www1.ethz.ch/uns/people/formerhead/scholzr/publ/1545.pdf
This article uses the method of cross-case comparison to study collaborative planning projects in urban transportation. Using examples in Gothenburg (Sweden), London (United Kingdom), Milwaukee (United States), Tokyo (Japan) and Mexico City (Mexico), the authors aimed to find out similarities and differences between the cases, focusing on the different actors (e.g. municipal governments, national funding agencies) involved in the planning processes. Using rough set analysis, they determined that dedicated management of the multi-actor network, a high diversity of actors in the planning process, an extensive use of knowledge integration methods, a high actor network density and extensive use of unilateral (one-way) communication methods are critical success conditions in these planning processes.